论文总字数：30669字

摘 要

图式理论是一种关于人的知识如何被表征，被分类和被有效应用的认知理论。本文阐述了图式理论的概念、分类及作用，分析了语言图式、形式图式及内容图式与阅读之间的关系。本文还介绍三种阅读模式:自上而下、自下而上及互动阅读模式。本文认为教师在阅读教学过程中，应该运用这三种阅读模式，并提出英语阅读教学可分为三个阶段，第一阶段，阅读前的活动，教师应开展预测、头脑风暴等活动，引导学生积极思考。第二阶段是阅读期间的活动，对阅读材料进行略读和仔细阅读。第三阶段，开展阅读后的活动，如问问题、讨论和概括。总之，图式理论在英语阅读教学中的应用将会有助于学生英语阅读能力的提高。

关键词：图式理论; 英语阅读；阅读模式；阅读活动

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Contents

1.Introduction 1

2. Literature Review 1

3. Schema Theory 2

3.1Definition of schema 2

3.2Three types of Schema Theory 3

3.3 Functions of schema 4

4. Schema Theory and Reading Comprehension 6

4.1 Linguistic schema and reading comprehension 6

4.2 Formal schema and reading comprehension 6

4.3 Content schema and reading comprehension 7

5. Schema-based Models of Reading Comprehension 7

5.1The top-down model 7

5.2 The bottom-up model 8

5.3 Interactive model 8

6. Implications for Teaching Reading 9

6.1 Providing cultural background knowledge 9

6.2 Encouraging students’ extensive reading 9

6.3 Carrying out three-stage reading activities 10

7. Conclusion 12

Works Cited 14

1. Introduction

Reading ability is a significant ability for English learners. And it is also one of the significant standards to scale the students’ English reading level. Therefore, development of reading competence should have the priority in secondary school.

However, some students are getting tired of learning English due to the dull and mechanical training, especially in reading comprehension. Although they have done plenty of examination exercises, including reading comprehension ones, their reading ability is little improved. Our teaching mode is guided by exam-oriented teaching idea. Facing this arduous task, students and teachers have to exercise more, and they didn’t consider students’ personal reading interest, learning style and so on. In the process of reading, students become passive poor readers because of this mechanical training.

There’re still many aspects that need to be improved in the teaching of English reading. Some teachers put more emphasis on the language points and the grammar analysis. They spend much time on explaining the language knowledge. With time passing by, students become less interested in the reading. As a result, their reading ability is little improved. According to schema theory, we may carry out some reading abilities to activate interest, and we should provide more background knowledge to help students understand the reading materials better.

From the above analysis, we can see that schema theory is helpful to the teaching of English reading.

2. Literature Review

Schema was first put forward by Kant in 1781.He believes that concept doesn’t carry meaning by itself; and it is meaningful just when it is related with something already known by people. Psychologist E.C Barlett (1932) defines schema as the active organization of former experience and reaction.

Anderson and Pearson (1984) stated that a schema is an abstract knowledge structure which the reader brings to the text while reading. It is abstract in the sense that it summarizes what is known about many cases that differ in many situations. And it is structured in the sense that it represents the relationship among its component parts. The significant assumption of the theory is that a text doesn’t have any meanings. Rather, it only provides directions for readers as for how they should reconstruct meaning from their prior knowledge, i.e., background knowledge, which is the general knowledge of the world stored in one’s mind. According to the model, comprehension is an interactive process between a read’s background knowledge and the text, and between new knowledge and old knowledge store.

Schemata are hierarchically organized form the most general at the top to the most specific at the bottom. Celce-Murcia (2000) divides the reading process into four stages: (1) clues to meanings are taken up from the page and transmitted to the brain; (2) the brain then tries to match existing knowledge to the incoming data to facilitate the information; (3) predictions are made about the content of the passage based on the existing experience; (4) the data is examined more closely and predictions are either confirmed or revised. The principle above results in two basic models of information processing: bottom-up processing and top-down processing. As to the former one, readers analyze each word for its meaning or grammatical characteristics and then accumulate meaning to form preposition. The top-down processing takes place when the system makes general predictions based on higher level, general schemata, and then searches the input for information to fit into these partially satisfied higher level schemata.

3. Schema Theory

3.1Definition of schema

There are many influential ways of defining schema, and nearly all cognitive definitions of schema arise from Bartlett (1932) in remembering: a study in Experimental and Social Psychology: “active organization of past reactions of past experiences, which must always be supposed to be operation in any well-adapted organic response.” Rumelhart (1980) put forward the concept of schema theory basically as a theory of how knowledge is mentally represented in the mind and used. Based on his “schema theory”, “all knowledge is packaged into units. These units are schemata”. Three years later, Widdowson defined schema as“ cognitive constructs which allow for the organization of information in a long-term memory” and Van Dijk regarded schemata as “large, complex units of knowledge that organize much of what we know about general categories of objects, classes of events, and types of people’’

Concluding from the above definitions, we may know that schema is the prior knowledge gained through experiences in one’s life time stored in his/her mind. It is an abstract structure of knowledge. It is abstract because it does not have any relationship with any particular experience. It is a structure because it is organized; it includes the relationships between its components (Nuttall 2002). This term is often used in its singular form-schema-to refer to an organized chunk of knowledge or experience, often accompanied by feelings or emotions associated with experience at the time the information was stored.

3.2 Three types of Schema Theory

Researchers have identified several types of schemata. Generally speaking, there are three types of schemata, namely, linguistic schemata, formal schemata and content schemata, which are closely related to reading comprehension.

Linguistic schemata include the basic knowledge of language. As we all know, basic language knowledge like grammar, vocabulary and sentence structure play a significant part in the understanding of a text especially at the elementary stage of learning. Any reading skill would be useless for readers who lack basic vocabulary and grammar knowledge. Poor linguistic schemata will cost more time and reduce the efficiency and speed of reading. Therefore, if the readers have more linguistic schemata in their mind, they will acquire information fast so as to have a better understanding of the reading materials.

Formal schemata include knowledge of different text types and genres, and the knowledge that different types of texts use text organization, language structures, vocabulary and grammar. Formal schemata are described as abstract, encoded patterns of meta-linguistic, discourse and textual organization that guide expectation in our attempts to understand a piece of language. We have many kinds of language structures, such as argumentation, exposition and narration. There are many kinds of schemata in our daily life. Readers use their schematic representations of the text, such as narrative, poems, essays, magazines, newspapers, etc. to understand the information in the text. Studies show that the knowledge of what type and genre can facilitate reading comprehension for readers, for the kind of text will offer detailed evidence of the content of the text. Nevertheless, compared with the linguistic and formal schemata, the formal schemata offers less power in the reading process (Carrell 178)

Content schemata refers to the background knowledge of the content area of a text or the topic a text talked about (Carrell 239) They include topic familiarity, cultural knowledge, and previous experience of a field. Content schemata deals with the knowledge relative to the content domain of the text, which is the key to the understanding of the text. Since one language is not only the simple combination of vocabulary, sentence structure and grammar, but also the bearer of different levels of the language’s culture. To some degree, content schemata can make up for the lack of language schemata, and thus help learners understand texts by predicting, choosing information and removing ambiguities.

Further evidence from many studies also shows that readers’ content schemata influence reading comprehension more greatly than formal schemata.

3.3 Functions of schema

3.3.1 Generating expectations

Once a schema is identified, the content of the schema provided the knowledge needed for readers to expect and predict future events. With the schemata, the readers can have different anticipations toward the topics of different types of texts, and especially, the readers can guess the latter context of the text with the help of the text. For example, when a reader reads the following topic:

“One day, two girls went walking in the forest. They were enjoying themselves and stayed late. A dragon kidnapped them. As they were being dragged off, they cried for help. Three heroes heard the cries and set off to rescue the girls.”

After the reader finishes reading the story, He/She may know that the story is related with kidnapping and rescuing. Generally speaking, the schema of a dragon is often concerned with some devils, while the schema of hero is often related with bravery and righteousness.

Expectations are generated by schemata at different levels of knowledge domains. A subset of expectations is ultimately correct, whereas other subsets are finally disconfirmed. So we should say that schemata are helpful to generate expectation during the process of reading.

3.3.2 Facilitating inferences

Generating inferences is another function of the schema theory. When statements are comprehended in a prose, the reader constructs a cognitive representation that contains a rich configuration of inferences. These inferences come from somewhere and their source is not always supplied by linguistic knowledge. Let’s take a sentence as a example:

He goes to see a doctor.

From this sentence, a reader may generally draw several inferences, the following listed included:

He is ill.

He chooses a hospital.

He queues up to register and then finds the department he wants.

A doctor examines him and asks some questions

The doctor prescribes for him and he goes to buy the prescribed medicine.

He leaves the hospital.

Specific schemata are needed in order to generate these inferences. If the reader has such an experience as inviting others for a meal, it will be much easy to facilitate inferences.

3.3.3 Focusing readers’ attention

Focusing readers’ attention is a schema’s another function. There are two ways that schemata guide the readers’ attention. First, schemata direct attention toward regions of the information array where parts are present in the information array by issuing commands to seek areas in the information array where schemata elements are expected to be. When the schema is activated during the reading process, it constantly selects the most appropriate part to explain the reading material from the schema net structure. Second, attention is directed to areas of information that derives from the content of the schema. In short, attention is directed to parts of the information array that derives from the schema.

4. Schema Theory and Reading Comprehension

4.1 Linguistic schema and reading comprehension

As mentioned before, linguistic schemata refer to readers’ existing language proficiency in vocabulary, grammar and sentence structure, etc. As is known to all, as the basis of comprehension, language knowledge plays an important role during the process of reading. Without basic language knowledge, no reading strategy or skill can function well. Poor language schemata make the big obstacle especially for fast reading and correct reading. Therefore, if the readers have more language schemata, readers may acquire more information .

4.2 Formal schema and reading comprehension

Formal schemata are the organized forms and rhetorical structure of written text. It includes knowledge of different text types, and the knowledge that different kinds of texts use different organization, language structures, vocabulary, grammar.

Carrel (1984) made an experiment to find out whether we can facilitate EFL reading by teaching about text structure. The result of the experiment proved that explicit teaching of the text structure can improve students’ reading comprehension. Many studies demonstrated the different types of the text structure affected comprehension. We have to admit that there are various types of reading materials in our daily reading, and different reading materials have different characteristics and pose many requests for readers. It is excellent to use formal schema during the reading process.

4.3 Content schema and reading comprehension

Content schemata refers to the background knowledge of the content area of a text or the topic a text talked about (Carrell 239) They include topic familiarity, cultural knowledge, and previous experience of a field. Content schemata deals with the knowledge relative to the content domain of the text, which is the key to the understanding of the text. In a word, content schemata are able to make up for the lack of language schemata and formal schemata, and thus help readers to predict the content of the text. Studies show that content schemata affect comprehension and remembering more than formal schemata do for text organization, that is to say, readers tend to remember the most when the content and rhetorical forms were familiar to them while unfamiliar content may cause more difficulty in correct comprehension.

5. Schema-based Models of Reading Comprehension

Psychologists have generally distinguished three kinds of processing: top-down model, bottom-up model, and the recently emerging interactive model.

5.1The Top-down Model

We may guess that the “top-down” model is opposite to the “bottom-up” model, in which one might expect that the process begins with the largest unit then deals with smaller and smaller units ending with the expectations of the reader. This plays a crucial role in the reading process. “Good man views reading as a process of hypothesis verification, where the readers use selected data from the text to conform their guesses.”(Goodman 129) It should be clarified that the top-down model stresses the important role not only the reader’s active participation in the reading process, but also everything in the reader’s background knowledge and previous experience.

5.2 The Bottom-up Model

Bottom-up model of reading process holds the opinion that reading is a process of building symbols into words, words into sentences, sentences into the overall meaning, which reflects traditional attitudes towards reading. Bottom-up model operates on the principle that the written text is hierarchically organized and that the reader first processes the smallest linguistic unit, gradual compiling the smaller units to comprehend the higher units. In this model, readers begin with the lowest level, from which the symbols are identified. Strings of symbols are then analyzed into morphological clusters, from which words are recognized, and then strings of words are analyzed into phrases and sentences. The reader’s previous language knowledge, such as vocabulary, grammar, syntax, etc can help to capture the meaning of the reading materials.

Therefore, from the bottom-up model’s point of view, accuracy in understanding linguistic units is of great necessity. This model focuses more on the understanding of linguistic knowledge.

5.3 Interactive model

From the above analysis, it can be concluded that both bottom-up and top-down models have limitation; the recognization of this results in a more comprehensive view of reading process, namely, interactive model of reading process which is an interaction of bottom-up and top-down models claiming that prior knowledge and prediction facilitate the processing of input from the text. The interaction happens at three levels. That is, the interaction between different levels of skills; and between the background knowledge presupposed in the article and the background of the reader.

Interactive model combines the bottom-up and top-down models, and absorbs their strengths and weakness and avoids the limitations to a large extent. By far, it is the most effective reading processing and hence is advocated by many researchers.

6. Implications for Teaching Reading

6.1 Providing cultural background knowledge

“One of the most obvious reasons why a particular content schema may fail to exist for a reader is that the schema is culturally specific and is not part of a particular reader’s cultural background”(Carrel amp; Eisterhold 1978).That is to say, the background knowledge that foreign language brings to the text is often culture-specific. The reader’s failure in instantiating an appropriate schema during reading comprehension causes different degrees of non-comprehension. The failure may due to the fact that the reader doesn’t possess comprehensive understanding of the schema and thus fails to comprehend. It turns to be necessary to provides students with cultural background.

In many cases, what prevents us from understanding is not the print itself, but the culture connoted in it. It is of great importance to consider the background when we choose reading materials. “Direct instruction on background knowledge can significantly improve students’ comprehension of relevant reading materials.” (Davis 179). Sometimes, students may come across some incredible expressions which need the teachers’ explanations to help them solve their problems.

For example, a white day means the day .But in the UK, white represents pure and happy things, so a white day means “happy occasion”. So when teachers explain the differences of words to the students, they can have a better understanding of the reading.

6.2 Encouraging students’ extensive reading

There are many ways to reduce conflict and interference to a minimum, one way is extensive reading. According to schema theory, the more background knowledge the reader possesses, the better he will understand the text. In English teaching, reading in class is not enough for making an efficient reader. So students have to do extensive reading to enrich background knowledge. Wallace (1992) argued that wide access to meaningful written language may be an efficient way of learning new structures and just of reinforcing or practicing known ones. Non-native readers need to get as much reading as possible so as to understand what native readers carry to a text-both schemata. By extensive reading, students can have the motivation by allowed to choose their own reading materials based on their interests.

6.3 Carrying out Three-Stage Reading Activities

6.3.1 Pre-reading Activities

Pre-reading is used to activate interest and motivate students to read for meaning before they start reading comprehensions. The aim is to arouse interest, activate the related background knowledge, and provide them with necessary linguistic knowledge.

Step1: Predicting

Predicting can help readers activate their schemata related to the subject of a text. When readers begin to predict something, their brains start to work and extract relative information from their previous knowledge. Predicting starts according to some clues from the text, such as the title, the author, the format, the type, the form and table, the pictures, etc. Pre-question is one of the most useful ways. When students decide to answer questions, they are activating existing knowledge. Teachers can help students by preparing questions in advance.

Step 2: Brainstorming

Teachers may ask students to examine together the title of the selection they are about to read. Teachers can make a list of all the information that comes to mind as students read the title. In that way, students can use these information to recall their prior knowledge, and in the process, considerable knowledge will be activated.

6.3.2 While-reading Activities

While-reading is the most focused teaching procedure in reading teaching. After the relevant schema is activated and the prediction of the text is made, students are desperate to read the material in order to see whether their prediction is right or not. When students begin to read a text in detail, they use many reading skills to ensure comprehension speed and accuracy. They should get used to reading silently and quickly. Here are some while-reading activities.

Step 1: Skimming and scanning

Scanning is a sort of reading skills to find a piece of information fast in a passage. It is to look for some particular information rapidly without reading word by word or phrase by phrase. The teachers should tell students what kind of information they need to find before scanning, and during the scanning process they will look for words or phrases that will give them the needed information. When they have searched the information, they may decrease their speed and read the passage to make sure what they have found is correct.

This technique is very helpful for those readers who want to find a piece of particularly exact information. For example, the time, the places, the figures, the numbers, the detailed information etc.

Skimming is another reading skill that resembles scanning. We all know that during the reading process, the readers or the students possibly neither have the time nor the interest to read each item carefully and that is time-consuming and totally unnecessary. Besides, sometimes it is more efficient and useful to skim over something rapidly to get the general information or main ideas to have a bird’s eye view on a theme. It can help to just satisfy one’s curiosity without spending a lot of time on it.

It is useful to look for subheadings, top sentences of paragraphs, repeated words.

Step 2: Mid-text Predicting

Predicting can be organized not only before reading, but also in the course of reading. An active reader will try his or her best to communicate with the writer of the text, and he will always ponder what the writer is going to talk about. In reading instruction, the teacher can ask students to stop reading at points in the text when something dramatic or different is going to happen. At the same time, he or she can ask students to predict what might happen next. Mid-text Predicting can activate students’ imagination and encourage them to read more actively.

Step 3: Making Inferences

Making Inferences, which means “reading between the lines”, requires readers to make full use of their schemata to comprehend the author’s implied meaning. It is an active way to read and commonly happens in our daily reading. As long as readers make inferences on the content of the text, whether the inferences are correct or not, they are sure to set the foreground for their further reading. In class, the teachers can ask students to make inferences on a sentence, a passage, or the whole text. Sometimes, multiple inferences should be encouraged to motivate students’ original spirit. If necessary, the teacher can remind the students of signal words in the text.

6.4.3 Post-reading Activities

When students finish reading, reading instruction doesn’t come to the end: consolidation and creation are needed. These activities can enhance the reconstruction of the readers’ schemata, and avail themselves of further activation of the schemata. The following activities are recommended.

Step 1: Question and discussion

During the post-reading activities, questions are used to stimulate their prior knowledge and construct new schemata for a better understanding of the text. Discussion helps students associate the meaning of the text with their constructed schemata. So, teachers have the responsibility to consolidate or reinforce their existing schemata. Students are encouraged to discuss some questions concerning the main idea or some solutions which are not mentioned in the text. Readers hold different opinions about the same information so the solutions might be quite different. Therefore, it is a good idea to share different ideas with our peers.

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