论文总字数：36878字

摘 要

约翰·斯坦贝克是20世纪重要作家。社会批评小说《愤怒的葡萄》是他最好的作品之一。针对该作品的早期研究主要涉及主题和写作风格。而自从生态批评理论引进文学评论后，人们开始从生态角度解读这本书。

本篇论文将分析他人的研究，用生态批评理论揭示斯坦贝克的生态观。值得一提的是，论文中一些部分把斯坦贝克的思想与《圣经》结合。这有助于对小说的理解。论文简单介绍了生态批评理论的背景和主要内容，探讨该书中体现的自然危机、社会危机以及精神危机。自然危机即人类中心主义思想和工业化；社会危机是资本主义经济以及自我主义；精神危机即美国梦的幻灭。斯坦贝克揭示了这三种危机，提倡集体主义以及和谐的人与人、人与自然的关系。

关键词：约翰·斯坦贝克；生态主义批评理论；生态观；《圣经》；《愤怒的葡萄》

Contents

1. Introduction 1

2. Literature Review 2

3. An Introduction to Eco-criticism 4

4. Steinbeck’s Social Ecological Ideas in The Grapes of Wrath 6

4.1 Opposition to Anthropocentrism 6

4.2 Denouncing the Industrial Civilization 7

4.3 Criticizing Capitalistic Economy 8

4.4 Reprehending Egoism and Advocating Collectivism 10

4.5 Expressing the Disillusionment of American Dream 11

5. Conclusion 13

Works Cited 15

1. Introduction

John Steinbeck (1902-1968) was one of the most important American writers in the 20^th century who enjoyed remarkable reputation in American literature. He was elected successively to the America’s National Endowment for the Arts and the American Academy of Arts and Letters. In 1940, he won the Pulitzer Prize for The Grapes of Wrath. In 1962, Steinbeck’s Of Mice and Men (1937) helped him win the Nobel Prize for literature for his realistic and imaginative writing, along with his sympathetic humor and keen social perception. Up to now, Steinbeck still boasts a huge number of readers across the world.

In his Leaves of Grass, Walt Whitman said, “The Americans of all nations at any time upon the earth, have probably the fullest poetical nature” (Whitman, 2007:3). Steinbeck confirmed this saying because he was resolutely concerned with his motherland, especially California’s characteristics and fates. Since his first novel collection The Pastures of Heaven (1932), Steinbeck had evoked, in almost all books, his compatriots’ awareness of the country’s natural environment and habitats. He called out for the disadvantaged by virtue of his pen (Hinds, 2008:17).

As a writer, Steinbeck’s most significant achievement lies, with no doubt, in his novels. Such works as Tortilla Flat (1935), which portrays a group of countrymen enjoying their life in the days after the end of the Great War and , The Grapes of Wrath (1939), East of Eden (1952) exploring the themes of poverty, love and the struggle for acceptance, etc. have long been engraved on America’s memory. He depicts the migratory farmers’ and workers’ tragedies of being discriminated and struggling to survive on their way from the middle and western states to California.

The Grapes of Wrath sketches America’s social picture in the 1930s when the Great Depression swept over the country. The book, which enlivens tenant men’s hardship, is modern American farmers’ epic. Scholar John Timmerman concluded, “The Grapes of Wrath may well be the most thoroughly discussed novel – in criticism, reviews, and college classrooms – of 20^th century American literature” (Timmerman, 1986:5). This paper aims to interpret The Grapes of Wrath based on ecological perspective and thus reveals Steinbeck’s social ecological idea.

It is publicly agreed that The Grapes of Wrath is one of Steinbeck’s best books. It tells a story of Oklahoma tenant farmers who move to California and become migratory workers there. This book has exerted great influence in American history as well as literature. It did not only help Steinbeck win the Pulitzer Price, but also was recognized as “the 100 best English-language novels of the 20^th century.” Upon its publication, however, there have been various divergent comments on the book both at home and abroad.

2. Literature Review

Upon its publication in 1939, The Grapes of Wrath was recognized, by both its admirers and opponents, as social protest and soon hit the headlines of newspapers and magazines. It soon attracted a large number of academic researches, most of which were closely related to the book’s social influence. Some are worth highlighting. For example, Dong Hengxun, a pioneer in China in researching Steinbeck, considered Steinbeck a social protester and thus concentrated on the sociological content. According to his research, from praising America’s stability in Sweet Thursday to sympathizing with tenants’ hard life in The Grapes of Wrath, Steinbeck’s understanding of the American society changed along with his personal life (Dong Hengxun, 1996:37). Some critics held Steinbeck “has great power, intense feeling, and a strong sense of the evil of a system which allows prosperity to a few and nothing but eventual serfdom to the many…” (Ditsky, 1989:168) Yet, such compliments on the book were challenged by some other critics. Frank J. Taylor wrote in Forum to attack factual inaccuracies (Hinds, 2008:35). The Oklahoma City Times once issued an article entitled “The Grapes of Wrath? Obscenity and Inaccuracy”, considering the book “propaganda in its vilest form” (Hinds, 2008:35). The Board of Supervisors in California even banned the book. Most of the negative opinions were targeted at Steinbeck’s description of the hard lives experienced by the state and people (Hinds, 2008:39).

In recent years, with the development of eco-criticism, some scholars have started to interpret the book from the perspective of ecology. For instance, Hu Tianfu, the author of The Grapes of Wrath: A Great Work of Eco-literature writes about the sources of Steinbeck’s ecological ideas, including the impact of reading, love for nature, friendship with Edward Ricketts and travel experience. He holds that the book implies not only Steinbeck’s compassion for homeless farmers but also his wrath towards the destruction conducted by man to ecology (Hu Tianfu, 2006:102). Besides, Woodburn Ross delves into Steinbeck’s biological idea in his “John Steinbeck: Naturalism’s Priest.” This book shows Steinbeck is not only a writer, but a scientist, social reformist and realist. Ross believes John Steinbeck contributes to the profound social reforms after the Great Depression (Ross, 1949:438). All these researches convey an idea that John Steinbeck is a great ecologist.

According to statistics of the Chinese periodical website CNKI, there are about 40 master and doctoral theses on The Grapes of Wrath. Among them, 12 these study the book from the angle of ecology. For instance, Gao Yi’s An Eco-critical Reading of “The Grapes of Wrath” studies the book from natural ecology, social ecology and spiritual ecology (Gao Yi, 2009:20). Another master thesis is On the Ecological Crises in “The Grapes of Wrath” written by Mei Fang. She analyzes the ecological crises, attempts to find solutions to these crises, including rebuilding harmony, mutual help and cooperation and establishing universal love. She also embodies the theoretical and realistic significance of Steinbeck’s ecological thoughts by discussing both natural and spiritual ecological crises (Mei Fang, 2013:47). They explore the book in light of eco-criticism and come to the conclusion that the balance between man and nature is important for the development of a harmonious world.

However, still some aspects need to be paid attention to. Most researches into the novel are based on the theme or natural ecology. Although some mention social ecology like Liang Yan who focuses on the sublimation of human nature from “I” to “we” (Liang Yan, 2012:80), few study the criticism of monopoly capitalism and the disillusionment of American dream embedded in the book. Besides, the relationship between Steinbeck’s writing and Bible is rarely studied. So in order to gain a better understanding of the novel, this thesis aims to combine other scholars’ study with my own interpretation based on the development of capitalism, disillusionment of American dream and the connection with Bible and interpret the book from the perspective of eco-criticism. It will introduce the background of eco-criticism and its basic content. The main ideas of Steinbeck’s ecological views are revealed, including the criticism of anthropocentrism, industrialization, American dream, and egoism. The author hopes the paper can contribute to the construction of a harmonious society and the sound development of the whole world.

3. An Introduction to Eco-criticism

As a form of literary and cultural criticism, eco-criticism was established in the middle 1990s by some European and American scholars. Yet as early as 1970s, William Rueckert used the term “eco-criticism” for the first time in his Literature and Ecology: An Experiment in Eco-criticism. In recent years, a large number of “green literatures” have been published like Henry Thoreau’s Walden and Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring. They reflect various ecological ideas. As the economic globalization develops, the public is paying more attention to the environment. Thus, it is indispensable to make dialectical judgments on the ecological ethics on the basis of eco-criticism.

Eco-criticism’s formation, content and development are mainly revealed in the relations between man and nature which experiences the change from “man worshiping nature” to “man dominating nature.” We can find, from the ancient Greek myths, people’s awe and reverence to nature. However, the advancements in industry helped the western capitalist societies gain unprecedented power in a short period. Human beings, thus, did not have to surrender to nature (Wang Yang, 2009:79). So to meet their own needs, man started their crazy exploitation to grab every available resource for creating products. As a result, industrial and technological damage to nature reached a record high.

In the late 20^th century, serious environmental pollution caused by the fast industrial development, constantly caught the public’s eye. Consequently, western countries were facing grave environmental crises. Against such social background, people began to ponder on the means of production and thus awareness of protecting nature was taking shape. In this cultural atmosphere, some disciples of social science started to conduct ecological thinking. Then in the 1970s, William Rueckert introduced ecological views to literary researches. But the application of eco-criticism was primarily dispersive. With the rise of people’s ecological awareness and efforts made by related scholars, eco-criticism finally developed into an organized literary research in the early 1990s (Wang Yang, 2009:80).

Yet there is no clear and widely-recognized definition of eco-criticism. Currently, the researches into eco-criticism are complicated, but all of them have a same premise; that is, human culture and nature are closely related. Generally speaking, eco-criticism integrates literary study with ecological ideas to form a new means for researching literature.

Eco-criticism is the opposition of anthropocentrism. It emphasizes a complete ecosystem and human’s systematic life. According to eco-criticism, man should give up all the technologies, social institutions and values that interfere with or destroy the ecological system (Wang Yang, 2009:80).

The recent researches into eco-criticsim reveal its following basic content.

First, eco-criticism exerts great emphasis on comprehensive awareness of the ecology. It holds that nature, human beings included, is a system where all the internal parts are interdependent and work cooperatively. It disregards anthropocentrism. Instead, it considers nothing the center of nature. It actually takes the whole nature as an interconnected group. So eco-criticism is penetrated with ecological ideas. And one significant task of ecological literature and eco-criticism is to revive the public’s awareness of ecology.

Second, eco-criticism repudiates the negative influence of science and technology (Wang Yang, 2009:80). It warns that people should not meddle in natural development. The huge strides in human modern civilization are all the results of advanced modern science and technology. Yet science and technology has exerted negative impact on the environment to an alarming degree. Eco-criticism vehemently criticizes such phenomena.

Third, eco-criticism requires a rethinking of cultural values so as to establish new ecological ethics on a higher level. It also warns people to shoulder ecological responsibilities. Different from other literary study, the objects of eco-criticism are born with critical features. Ecological literature is people’s reflection on their attitudes and behaviors towards nature. It focuses on the rise of factors which influence earth environment and threaten lives. Therefore, most paradigms of ecological literature possess strong sense of criticism (Wang Yang, 2009:80).

4. Steinbeck’s Social Ecological Ideas in The Grapes of Wrath

Eco-criticism points at Western anthropocentrism which considers human beings the center of the world and believes man can control nature. As the industrial civilization advances, it pushes people’s desire of dominating nature to a record high. The rapid development of industrial civilization triggers people’s desire to pursue their own interests. Besides, the booming industrial civilization leads to bigger American dream whose disillusionment makes people suffer a lot.

In The Grapes of Wrath, John Steinbeck vehemently criticizes industrialization, American dream and egoism, while focusing on a balanced relationship between man and nature, between man and man. The natural crisis, social crisis and spiritual crisis embodied in this novel will be studied. The natural crisis is the destruction of nature; the social crisis is the imbalance between man and man; and the spiritual crisis refers to the lack of spiritual support and inner energy. So the thesis combines Steinbeck’s ideas with Bible so as to gain a new and thorough understanding of Steinbeck’s three crises.

4.1 Opposition to Anthropocentrism

From the perspective of ecologists, focusing on natural phenomena like nature and animals is a protest and challenge against anthropocentrism which aims to destroy and conquer nature (Xue Bing, 2011:146). Opposition to anthropocentrism expresses Steinbeck’s concern with nature.

The big eco-disaster attacked American southern Great Plain in the 1930s is an extreme consequence brought by anthropocentrism. Steinbeck writes about the eco-disaster in Oklahoma in the first chapter. “The rain crust broke and the dust lifted up out of the fields and drove gray plumes into the air like sluggish smoke.” (Steinbeck, 1939:3) In Chapter 13, Steinbeck ruthlessly criticizes people’s greed which directly leads to eco-disasters. “I don’t know what the country’s comin’ to.” “Fifty – sixty cars a folks go by ever’ day, folks all movin’ west with kids an’ househol’ stuff. Where they goin’? what they gonna do?” “But what’s the country comin’ to? That’s what I wanta know. What’s it comin’ to?” (Steinbeck, 1939:94) By employing repetition, Steinbeck highlights people’s anger and confusion. And Casy answers, “Here’s me that used to give all my fight against the devil ‘cause I figgered the devil was the enemy. But they’s somepin worse’n the devil got hold a the country, an’ it ain’t gonna let go till it’s chopped loose” (Steinbeck, 1939:96). Through Casy’s words, Steinbeck implies it is anthropocentrism, people’s greed and crazy exploitation that touch off eco-disasters (Hu Tianfu, 2006:99).

Steinbeck’s description is only a sketch of the sandstorm. In fact, countless animals died during that disaster. Morning turned into night. Once getting off cars, people could see nothing. Many became frustrated and indifferent. All this is the result of anthropocentrism. Human beings have considered themselves the center of the universe and the source of all values. They take their own interests as the criterion to judge everything (Wang Xin, 2008:98). Under the guidance of such values, people ignore natural laws and overuse all kinds of resources to their benefits. Steinbeck shows deep compassion for the tenants and his description of their tragic experiences reflects his criticism of anthropocentrism. He aims to warn human beings that the wrong ideology of man dominating nature will definitely lead to man’s extinction.

4.2 Denouncing the Industrial Civilization

The modern technology does not only boost human society’s prosperity, but also beefs up people’s wish to overcome nature. The rapid development of industrial civilization on the one hand triggers the infinite expansion of man’s material desire, flooding people’s pursuit of kindness and beauty; on the other hand, leads to the widening disparity between the rich and the poor. Consequently, science and technology becomes a powerful weapon which distances humans from their natural personalities and caring for themselves (Wang Xin, 2008:99). A classic literature is not only an embodiment of national culture but also a realistic mirror. The Grapes of Wrath is such a work. John Steinbeck uses realistic skills to depict the poor’s life.

In this novel, Steinbeck pungently criticizes the destruction of industrial technology to ecological system. Owners of lands use tractors to fleece the earth. As a result, farmers are driven out of their home and they have to find another way to make a living. On the other hand, people themselves also become salves of technology. For example, the man who drives the truck “did not look like a man” (Steinbeck, 1939:27). He is part of that monster, “a robot in the seat” (Steinbeck, 1939:27), because “the monster had somehow got into the driver’s hands, into his brain and muscle, had goggled him and muzzled him – goggled his mind, muzzled his speech, goggled his perception, muzzled his protest” (Steinbeck, 1939:27). Industrialization became a disaster which did not only make the land died because of the invention of iron, but also exhaust the natural resources. According to Bookchin, industrial civilization “threatens the integrity of organic nature; it will not continue to do so, given the harsh verdict of ‘mute’ and ‘blind’ nature” (Bookchin, 2005:102).The relationship between man and man, between man and themselves become abnormal, making people unaware of the purposes of life.

In a nutshell, industrial technology, a monster, alienates people from nature. It breaks the balance in rural nature, making humans victims of the imbalance.

4.3 Criticizing Capitalistic Economy

In addition to the damage to nature, industrial civilization also unbalances the distribution of wealth because the rich like bankers and ranchers who have access to technology grab most of the profits, while farmers who live on lands are driven away and suffer from poverty. In this novel, John Steinbeck criticizes monopoly capitalism and describes the riots of the poor. By referring to Bible, Steinbeck deepens the opposition against monopoly capitalism and the understanding of the poor’s suffering. As a writer with a civil mind, he tries to reveal the social crisis as well as the upper class’ wicked deeds and warn the world to constrain their desires.

America’s Great Depression in the 1930s is enlivened in this book. The 1920s was the “new era”, when wealth and opportunities seemed to open arms to the U.S. who had just won the First World War. The whole society scrambled to adopt new technology and new lifestyles. “Conspicuous consumption” gained its popularity and became the social trend. Against such background, on October 24, 1929, the black Thursday arrived (Zhang Wei, 2003:59). In this particular day, American finance broke down, along with terrible chain effect. Soon banks shut down one after another, people lost their jobs and ranchers and agricultural capitalists destroyed “surplus” food: they “burn coffee for fuel in the ships”, “dump potatoes in the rivers… to keep the hungry people from fishing them out”, and “slaughter the pigs and bury them, and let the putrescence dip down into the earth” (Steinbeck, 1939:292). Millions of people were forced to live on the streets and about eight million died of hunger. Besides, the Great Depression caused serious social problems. About 8.3 million students became unemployed (Zhang Wei, 2003:59). Many committed suicide because of the hard life. Social security also deteriorated. During this period, landowners used tractors to fleece the earth. As a result, farmers, the Joads included, are driven out of their home and they have to find another way to make a living. They leave their lands and headed to seemingly promising California. But actually most of these migrant workers became day labors at low wages.

Apart from the poor’s hard life, the hierarchy which is a byproduct of the booming industry also puts farmers into trouble. Due to the prosperity of capitalistic economy, the differences among different classes, in terms of social status, wealth, education and so on, become more distinct. Such groups as landowners and tenant begin to emerge as well as the land owners’ superiority and tenants’ inferiority (Bookchin, 2005:207). A word that appears many times in the book embodies such distinction, that is, “Okies.” Okies is the nickname of migrant farmers from Oklahoma given by California landowners. Afraid that these tenants may endanger their livelihood, they hire security guards who are equipped with shotguns. Also, as superior as they consider themselves to be, they establish a system where tenants are treated like animals and can only live in “Hooverville”, dirty tents along the roads. On the contrary, landowners live in beautiful houses and do not need to worry that rain might wash the house away. Besides, tenants have to haggle over every ounce. When purchasing goods, Ma can only buy a few due to lack of money. Yet the store owned by Hooper Ranches does not accept slips regardless of tenants’ economic hardship. Such stark contrasts between the poor and the rich reflect the influence of hierarchy.

This kind of conflict is also embodied in Bible and the title “The Grapes of Wrath” is closely related to Bible, conveying the riots of people. Grapes are often mentioned in Bible. Actually, in it, God refers man as grapes, and therefore, the grapes of wrath are the people of wrath (Wang Xiaoyu, 2011:128). Besides, grapes are also the symbol of anger. “Their vine comes from the vinestock of Sodom, from the vineyards of Gomorrah; their grapes are grapes of poison, their clusters are bitter” (Wang Xiaoyu, 2011: 461). In conclusion, the book is replete with people’s wrath towards the capitalists.

Steinbeck often works with farmers, so he has a thorough understanding of how they suffer from the oppression of the so-called economic development. Therefore, in The Grapes of Wrath, he vehemently criticizes it. He draws a line between the rich and the poor and considers the line the major source of evil. He laments the suffering of the tenants brought by the development industrialization and at same time strongly attacks technologies which breakthe balance of social ecology. Besides, Steinbeck also refers to Bible. In Bible, the wicked people can be represented by a horse. Likewise, in The Grapes of Wrath, the wicked can be represented by tractors. Jesus does not yield to evil even to the point of death. This is a kind of fighting. In Steinbeck’s novel, there is also a fight between the poor and the capitalists. In conclusion, Steinbeck perfectly combines his own experiences with the story in Bible to express his sympathy to the tenants.

4.4 Reprehending Egoism and Advocating Collectivism

In The Grapes of Wrath, an obvious shift is from egoism to collectivism, from “I” to “we.” Such a shift takes place not only in Joad, but also in Ma and Casy. Steinbeck vehemently criticizes isolation inherited in American society.

Steinbeck opposes the apparent material relation among people in this material society, especially the ranchers’ contempt for the impoverished. As technological civilization brings superficial prosperity, people’s greed and desire grow with their conquest of nature. Accordingly, tangible profits become the only criterion to measure interpersonal relationship, while the responsibility to virtues and compatriots slumps dramatically. So Steinbeck concludes “There is a crime here that goes beyond denunciation” and that “there is a sorrow here that weeping cannot symbolize” (Steinbeck, 1939:292). The rich pursue their own profits regardless of others’ well-being. This is exactly the egoism Steinbeck criticizes.

In stark contrast, Steinbeck constructs harmonious relationship among penniless day laborers and describes in details the transformation from “I” to “we” happening to the major characters. Environmentalists hold that to achieve a harmonious relationship between man and nature, the harmony between man and man must be obtained first (Hu Tianfu, 2006:100).

The awareness of oneself is perfectly revealed in Joe Davis’s boy. He is concerned only with his own interests. For instance, when a tenant reminds him that “for your three dollars a day fifteen or twenty families can’t eat at all” (Steinbeck, 1939:28), he contemptuously responds by saying “Can’t think of that. Got to think of my own kids… That’s the only way” (Steinbeck, 1939:28). Such an “I” consciousness also exists in the Joads. In the beginning, they seem to be united but this kind of unification is superficial. When they prepare for the trip to California, everyone works for their own family, not other poor people. Yet as Grandpa dies and the family gets poorer, they start to change and gain the “we” thinking. As Joad’s mother puts it, “if you’re in trouble or hurt or need – go to poor people; they’re the only ones that’ll help – the only ones” (Steinbeck, 1939:319). In their vagrant life, there are always such harmonious moments. Cordiality and love support those who struggle to live. Joad’s mother is a role model in establishing harmonious interpersonal relations. The Grapes of Wrath compliments Joad’s mother on helping others even when her own family is in trouble. She stands ready to give a hand and share precious food with others. She, for instance, gives food to hungry kids even though her family does not have enough to eat. She is the most perfect female character in this novel. She is a guide and goddess. Rosasharn is another example. When losing her baby, she is deeply graved. Yet she insists in breast-feeding a dying man who suffers from hunger. Here, like her mother, Rosasharn is only a woman, a symbol of life. Besides, when Joad’s grandfather is sick, the Wilsons offer their only tent to him so that he can have a rest.

These selfless and righteous characters and their deeds together build a harmonious interrelation and embody Steinbeck’s ecological idea, that is, to go beyond one’s own interests to pursue fairness and justice, to sacrifice for collective interests.

4.5 Expressing the Disillusionment of American Dream

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