论文总字数：37158字

摘 要

随着全球化的不断推进，跨文化交际的研究也不断深入，文化移情能力在跨文化交际中的价值也逐渐被发现。文化移情很大程度上影响到了跨文化交际的效果。因此充分了解文化移情的形成过程和作用对顺利进行跨文化交际起着至关重要的作用。

本课题旨在探讨跨文化交际中的文化移情能力的培养。首先，本课题对移情以及文化移情的概念做出阐述，并指出该领域已经取得的研究成果。其次，分析跨文化交际中文化移情的形成、表现和作用。再次，列举了跨文化交际中培养文化移情的障碍。最后，本课题给出跨越这些障碍从而能有效培养文化移情的方法。

关键词：跨文化交际；文化移情；障碍；培养

Contents

1. Introduction 1

2. Cultural Empathy in Cross-cultural Communication 2

2.1 Formation of cultural empathy 2

2.2 Manifestation of cultural empathy 5

2.3 Significance of cultural empathy 6

3. Obstacles in the Cultivation of Cultural Empathy 8

3.1 Differences of languages 8

3.2 Differences in the ways of thinking 9

3.3 Egoism 10

3.4 Lack of interest 10

4. Cultivation of Cultural Empathy 10

4.1 Establishing the correct cultural values 11

4.2 Cultivating cultural sensitivity 11

4.3 Adhering to the moderate principle 12

4.4 Constantly practising 12

5. Conclusion 13

Works Cited 14

1. Introduction

Before elaborating the notion of cultural empathy, we must make clear what empathy is. The notion of empathy was firstly created by a Germany scholar named Robert Visher, the field of which has been expanded from aesthetics to a variety of fields such as cognitive psychology, linguistics and cross-cultural communication. From a psychological point of view, empathy refers to a kind of self-generated close emotional experience with others on the basis of emotional perception, which is equivalent to the emotional resonance. Japanese linguist Kuno firstly ported the concept of empathy to the field of linguistics. According to Kuno"s argument, empathy is the closeness of the speaker and its depiction of events or things or states involved in a relationship.

American psychologist Carl Rogers pointed out that empathy is the ability to experience the spiritual world of others, which seems to be one’s own, but one will clearly remains self-consciousness. Daniel Goleman, father of emotional intelligence thought that empathy not only refers to the ability to identify others’ emotions and feel the desires and needs of others through subtle social signals, but also refers to the capacity to give appropriate response. Switzerland philosophy professor Deonna thought that “Empathy is generally understood as the capacity to understand feelings or attitudes of another, or taking the latter’s perspective, while at the same time also feeling in tune with the other although not becoming the other.” (Deonna 2007: 99) In brief, empathy requires that one put himself or herself in others’ position in verbal communication. That is to say, one needs to resonate with others’ emotional feelings beyond oneself.

In the 1930s, empathy was firstly introduced as an academic concept to China, which was then widely used in studies of aesthetics, psychology, philosophy and pragmatics, etc. He Ziran was the first to introduce the concept of empathy into pragmatics. He thought that language learners should understand and feel the culture of the target language country and put themselves in learning and using language in each other"s cultural background. In the field of cross-cultural communication, empathy also attracts a lot of attention. Jia Yuxin, Guan Shijie, Zhao Guihua, Gu Jiazu, Hu Wenzhong and other scholars have addressed the significance of empathy for its important role in cross-cultural communication. Gao Yongchen analyzed three kinds of empathy errors, including the hypocritical culture, cultural compassion and empathy culture hither, and he indicated that cultural empathy must adhere to the principle of equality and the principle of proportionality, oppose ethnic and cultural centrism, and overcome cultural prejudices and other negative mind-sets. Chen Erchun and Yuan Zhiming presented that the key to improving cultural empathy is to cultivate cross-cultural awareness as well as to adhere to the principles of practicality, progressivity, systematicness and times.

In line with communication studies in general, the role of cultural empathy in cross-cultural communication has been recognized early as an essential element of intercultural communication competence and a part of interpersonal sensitivity.(Jia Yuxin 2012: 78) As to the concept of cultural empathy, many scholars have their own unique perspective. Samovar and Porter advocated that cultural empathy involves two aspects: one is based on feelings, which means people need to affirm their own positive feelings in a positive way and learn to manage their feelings. What’s more, people should avoid taking the attitude of prejudice and stereotype towards others; the second is the cognitive dimension, which includes the logic to decipher and differentiate themselves with others’ intentions, ways of thinking, critical thinking, and rhetorical possibilities. The writer believes that cultural empathy is that communication subject converts cultural standpoint with conscious communication beyond local cultural stereotypes.

Therefore, cultural empathy requires communicators to get rid of the impact of local culture as much as possible, to understand and grasp the characteristics of the alien culture, and to think in the way of the alien culture so as to find common ground connection and to switch among different cultures. Communication is namely the cultural exchange while cross-cultural communication process is essentially a process of cultural empathy. In cross-cultural communication process, we must have a certain ability of cultural empathy and must be able to grasp the basic rules of cross-cultural communication.

2. Cultural Empathy in Cross-cultural Communication

Since the notions of empathy and cultural empathy have been elaborated above, we should also make clear some specific information about cultural empathy in cross-cultural communication. Only in this way can we give effective methods to cultivate cultural empathy. Therefore, the formation, manifestation and significance of cultural empathy in cross-cultural communication are analyzed in following passages.

2.1 Formation of cultural empathy

2.1.1 Inevitability of cultural empathy

Cultural commonality makes it possible to achieve empathy, while cultural diversity and cultural differences make empathy become an inevitable occurrence in cross-cultural communication. On the one hand, all humans in society have the same basic physical needs, that is, to survive and multiply, which are the basic functions of society. Humans have driving force to find cultural universality between different cultures, that is, “the unity of the human psyche.” So, it’s entirely possible for people from different cultural backgrounds to achieve empathy in communication. On the other hand, cultural differences of human beings exist objectively. It is because of cultural diversity and cultural differences that culture exhibits its richness and vividness and shows the vitality in its development. Cultural diversity can promote competition between different cultures, prompt people to see the strengths that they should learn from in foreign cultures, and induce people’s inspiration. Without cultural diversity and differences, there is no rich and innovative culture, nor the necessity of cultural empathy. Communication subjects with different cultural backgrounds own their personality traits in the cultural orientation, values, religion, ethics, ways of thinking, lifestyle, etc. This makes them different in the ways of encoding and decoding information, verbal and non-verbal behavior, the rules of using language, and discourse structure. These differences make people get rid of the influence of mindset formed by local cultural heritage and make people break their cognitive psychological projection and experience on the perspective of others. This is just what we called effective cultural empathy.

2.1.2 Basis of cultural empathy

In cross-cultural communication, empathy is generated on the basis that communication subject understands the multi-cultural background and has certain cultural sensitivity and cultural adaptation. Cultural sensitivity mainly refers to communicators’ sensitivity on the similarities and differences between mother culture and foreign cultures. What’s more, understanding the cultural characteristics’ impact on one’s own and others’ demeanor is also an essential part of cultural sensitivity. In cross-cultural communication, when communication subject receive information from another culture, they always understand information in their own decoding way influenced by their own cultural environment and mindset. Thus, the object’s information would be selected and changed in accordance with the subject’s needs, which tends to make the subject and object of the same information have different feelings. To effectively reduce different cognitive distances of the subject and object arising from the same information, people need to have high cultural sensitivity. Cultural sensitivity has three levels: the first one is to recognize that cultural difference is objective and can not be eliminated and rejected by personal preference; the second one is to appreciate this difference and treat it in a positive and proactive attitude; the third one, also the highest level, is to use cultural difference and make it a source of solving problems. If we can achieve the highest level, it is no doubt that empathy can be generated and reached very smoothly. Adaptation refers to the process of restructuring and transforming the structure of self-awareness because existing cognitive structure can not assimilate the new information provided by the environment when the external environment changes. Self-awareness achieves balance with the surrounding environment through assimilation and adaptation. Therefore, cultural adaptation is also an important part of empathy.

2.1.3 Processes of cultural empathy

Bruno considered that cultural empathy involves two aspects: one is the emotional foundation, which means people should be sure about their positive feelings, and be able to manage their feelings in a positive way; second is the cognitive level. Empathy includes deciphering and differentiating themselves with others’ logic, intentions, and ways of thinking, critical thinking, and rhetorical possibilities. Gu Jiazu further said that the definition of empathy should be divided into two areas: communication skills and perceptual skills. Empathy not only refers to perceiving and understanding other people’s feelings, emotional state but also means the correct feedback or reaction to others’ feelings or emotional state. These two aspects can not be neglected. Specifically, the realization of cultural empathy must involve six steps: recognizing differences, understanding self, suspending self, experiencing the other side, getting ready for empathy and rebuilding self. It’s a common phenomenon that a large number of differences exist between individuals and cultures. The world is diverse in the eyes of people. They need to fully understand self, suspend self and eliminate separate state between self and the environment. The approach to suspending self is to imagine an arbitrary bounded domain, which is delineated by people between self and the rest of the world, or between self and other people. Then imagine yourself in someone else’s position and make good preparation for empathy. Next it comes to experiencing empathy, which is of course imagined empathy. Finally, people rebuild self. Even if they enjoy the passion and joy generated by the experience of others, people must be able to recover their original state of mind, and to see their cultural norm again. Through these six steps, communicators can basically overcome ethnocentrism and other obstacles and can be more sensitive to the needs of others’ values, purpose and feelings, thus progressively achieving empathy.

2.2 Manifestation of cultural empathy

Cultural empathy in cross-cultural communication is first reflected in verbal communication, but it can be also found in non-verbal communication. In addition, modest cultural empathy is also desirable for empathy to achieve effective performance.

2.2.1 Cultural empathy in verbal communication

Language is a complex system network governed by certain rules, which contains the rules of language structure and language pragmatic rules, that is, social factors and social functions of language form, structure and use. Therefore, cultural empathy in verbal communication is presented in pragma-linguistic and language use.

(1) Pragma-linguistic empathy

“Pragma-linguistic empathy” means that the speaker deliberately uses language to express attitude and intentions to the listener and the listener accurately comprehend the discourse intention from the speaker’s point of view. The subtleties of pragmatic empathy are that the speaker or listener always encode and decode the language from the perspective of the other side: the speaker’s explanation of meaning should be understood by the listener and the listener should comprehend the words from the speaker’s point of view, so both sides can not ignore each other’s mind, which is empathy.

Pragma-linguistic empathy can be reflected in the choice of different lexical items in polymerization system of verbal communication, the choice of different statement sequences and the choice of tone system and modality system. In terms of lexical level, empathy can choose salutation, personal pronouns, verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs and other specific items to reflect significance. For example, the teacher told the students, “You have to remember that we are students and our main task is to learn.” In this sentence, “we” actually refers to the other side “you” and the speaker put himself into the other side’s position. This discourse of empathy for students is to let the other side feel more cordial.

(2) Socio-pragmatic empathy

“Socio-pragmatic empathy” means that the two communicating parties in verbal communication both respect each other’s thoughts and feelings, so that they can reach a tacit understanding in verbal communication process and achieve the expected effect. Socio-pragmatic empathy involves the two communicating parties’ social and cultural background, interpersonal relationship and context. It is reflected in the choice of specific cultural connotations as well as proverbs and is also reflected in the use of common words for social interaction and the use of methods of farewell. For example, a Chinese exchange student in America directly called his professor’s first name when they meet and greeted “Good morning.” not using “Where are you going?” or “What have you had for your meal?” What’s more, he didn’t ask for others’ privacy when participating in reunions. These behaviors all reflect the suitability of his empathy for others in appropriate social situations and such empathy that gets rid of the habit of their own culture actually is a universal phenomenon called “Do as the Romans do.” Conversely, if an American exchange student comes to China and hears Chinese people’s English greeting with Chinese taste: Have you had your meal, he will not resent and perhaps even gladly accepts. Clearly, cognitive psychology of pragmatic empathy works here.

2.2.2 Cultural empathy in non-verbal communication

Non-verbal communication includes many aspects, such as eyes, gestures, facial expressions, costumes, silence, the distance between the speakers, the volume of speech, the concept of time, the use of space, and so on, in which empathy can be reflected. For example, in Buddhist countries like Thailand, head is considered the most sacred part. Therefore, when seeing a cute kid, trying to avoid touching his head is considered the proper performance of cultural empathy. There is another example also about body contact: Chinese people are used to crowded life, yet they tighten their shoulders and arms on Britain trains and carefully try not to make body contact with other passengers. Even if they occasionally touch others, they would immediately make an apology, which is the active empathy performance.

2.3 Significance of cultural empathy

Cross-cultural communicative competence is a kind of comprehensive capability and also a capacity system full of rich content as well as complex and diverse elements. Ruben divided cross-cultural communicative competence into seven elements: first is the ability to show respect for and maintain positive attitudes towards others; second is the ability to take a descriptive, non-evaluative and non-judgmental attitude; third is the ability to maximize understanding of other’s personality; fourth is empathy; fifth is the ability to cope with different situations; sixth is the ability to take turns to talk to each other; seventhly is the ability to tolerate new and ambiguous situations and to leisurely make response. The writer believes that among seven elements, cultural empathy is most important, which is the key factor in impacting the success of cross-cultural communication. Both Gudykunst’s three elements theory of effective communicative competence and Jia Yuxin’s five elements theory have highlighted the status and role of cultural empathy in the cultural communicative competence system. Generally speaking, if one doesn’t have cultural empathy or his cultural empathy is low, other elements can never be effectively formed. In addition, there are other roles that cultural empathy plays in cross-cultural communication:

On the one hand, cultural empathy can improve the ability to adapt to other nation’s language and culture. Y. Y. Kim pointed out in the article “communication and language acculturation” that communicative process is the basis of the process of constituting language and cultural adaptation. Language and cultural adaptation is produced by identifying and internalizing the important symbol of the culture of the target language. Schumann noted that “The social psychology contact with the target language community is an important factor in language acculturation process.” Obviously, to adapt to the language and culture, we must reduce the social distance and psychological distance. And empathy is precisely one effective means to narrow social psychological distance with communicative object. Due to historical, ecological, technological, biological, social structure and other reasons, there are big differences among different language and culture and these differences are often entrenched. Therefore, sociologists say that it’s impossible for one to jump out of his own country’s culture just like to get rid of his own skin. But through empathy, communicators can in some way “get rid of their skin”, and truly appreciate other nation’s language and culture. It is widely noted that in making the emotional feedback or reaction, people with high empathy are able to keep their opinions and, at the same time, to stand point of view of others to experience their feelings and emotions. Thus, in the process of adapting to the language and culture of other countries, empathy provides a way for learners on the basis of retention of the national language and culture to understand and adapt to the language and culture of other countries.

On the other hand, cultural empathy can remedy and broaden the channels of information. Inadequate and distorted information is one of the key factors causing the failure of cross-cultural communication; therefore, to conduct a successful cross-cultural communication, we must remedy and broaden channels of information, making sure that information transmits with less distortion and less loss. Empathy is a means to remedy and broaden the information channels because it helps “communication intervention”. With empathy, information decoders can integrate into encoders’ “mood”, remove a variety of “noise” in information channels and accurately grasp the significance that communication objects want to convey.

3. Obstacles in the Cultivation of Cultural Empathy

In fact, just knowing the specific information about cultural empathy in cross-cultural communication is not enough for effective methods to cultivate cultural empathy. We should also make clear what difficulties we will face in the process of cultivating cultural empathy. Therefore, several obstacles will be listed in following parts.

3.1 Differences of languages

In cross-cultural communication, people have different uses of language, cultural background, ways of thinking and habits of expression. All these differences set objective barriers for empathy in communication. Cross-cultural communication is first exposed to language, which is the primary means of experiencing empathy. Differences of language set up the first obstacle for communication. On the one hand, the two sides of communication are not confident of their use of language, but they must truly understand the listener’s state of mind in cognitive and emotional aspects. On the other hand, when the other side of communication speaks foreign language, we tend to misunderstand due to the interference of our mother tongue. As long as we pay attention to understanding the empathy factor of language, we can truly communicate with others. If we could not even understand the other side’s language, it’s impossible to achieve empathy.

What’s more, language is closely related to culture. The famous linguist Coudenhov explicitly discussed the relationship between language and culture in his book named “Cultural Anthropology and Linguistics”: a society’s language is one aspect of this society’s culture. As a part of culture, language is particular in that it is the main tool of learning language and people get the whole culture in the process of learning and using language. Language is the carrier of culture, so any language is used to express culture. Different language elements reflect different cultural attributes and imply different ethnic cultural psychology as well as different cultural worlds. Therefore, if we do not understand the social culture that language contains, we can not really master language. In cross-cultural communication, people prone to commit more cultural errors than language errors, while cultural errors are often more serious than language errors. Generally speaking, in cross-cultural communication, people are capable of understanding one’s language errors but they are very sensitive to cultural errors. Therefore, we can say that the key to cross-cultural communication is to step over cultural barriers.

3.2 Differences in the ways of thinking

Language is also closely related to thinking: language is the shell of thinking while thinking is the deep mechanism for the generation and development of language. The two sides’ difference in ways of thinking is also an important root for the obstacles of empathy. Ways of thinking is the bridge between culture and language. On the one hand, the way of thinking is closely related to culture because it is a concentrated expression of various cultural psychological characteristics, and it produces restraining effect to various elements of culture. The way of thinking is reflected in all areas of national culture. Difference in ways of thinking is a significant cause of cultural differences. On the other hand, language is closely related to thinking and it is the deep mechanism for the generation and development of language. The way of thinking is reflected in a certain way and is expressed in some language form. Difference in ways of thinking is also a significant cause of language differences.

Every nation lives in a particular natural geographical environment with their own historical background and cultural traditions, and thus forms their own way of thinking. East and West belong to two different cultural systems, thus forming two types of thinking. Due to different geographical environment, historical background, political system, economic system, customs, religion, language, and different philosophy, ethics, values, aesthetics, time and space, psychological characteristics, and other factors, Eastern and Western ways of thinking on the whole have different characteristics. For example, Asians emphasize the humanities, focusing on ethics and morality, while Westerners emphasize nature, focusing on science and technology; Asians weigh perception, intuition and images while Westerners weigh rationality, logic, and proof; Asians are quiet, introverted and conservative while Westerners are active, outgoing and open, etc. All these set objective obstacles for empathy in cross-cultural communication.

3.3 Egoism

Perhaps the most common one of all barriers to empathy is a constant egoism. Egoism means that communicative subject interprets and judges other people"s words and behavior from their own values and value criteria. If you always focus on your own ideas, others will have the same opinions and even think their idea is the right answer, which will make both sides in communication feel awkward and not want further communication. At the same time, we should avoid the tendency to over generalize, because only learning about a culture or a fraction of a person and then judging all of that culture or the people often leads to errors in judgment. Take the TV series “Modern Family” as an example: Old Shaw didn’t like her grandson Jacob’s golden curls, so she forced Jacob to dye hair, believing that only with full black hair can be her grandson. As a result, Jacob disliked her “mommy’s mommy” very much and frequently skirmished with her grandmother. In fact, their clashes derived from Old Shaw’s excessive individualism. This old lady tried to impose her ideas to Jacob, which surely caused the failure of empathy.

3.4 Lack of interest

There is a saying that “interest is the best teacher.” In the process of cross-cultural communication, we often fall into an act of self-preservation due to a lack of interest to others, which can prevent others from getting information about themselves, such as their judgment and evaluation. If our actions make others feel deserted, others will not give us too much information. Precisely because this protective behavior is so prevalent, it’s of great practical significance to study how the act impedes our empathy. When it comes to protective behavior, be it through what we call or what we make, we always seem to be on the evaluation of others, which makes others take precautions against us. It’s the same when we were in such a situation. Therefore, empathy is a two-way communication process. Only if the two sides of communication unreservedly open their heart can empathy reach its best and achieve the best results. As long as one side protect themselves in communication arising from a lack of interest, empathy can not be produced.

4. Cultivation of Cultural Empathy

Empathy is one of the seven elements of effective communication that are proposed by Ruben and it is also the key factor in the success of communication. Only if we step over the obstacles of empathy and consciously train and develop empathy can we better carry out cultural communication. Then, how can we step over the obstacles of empathy and improve the ability of empathy?

4.1 Establishing the correct cultural values

From 19th century to 1930s, many people have presented the principles of cultural relativity and relativity of value such as anthropologist Westermarck, sociologist Sumner and philosopher Nietzsche. They believe that every culture has some sort of rational presence on the standard of behavior, the scale of values and various systems in the range of its cultural framework. Despite they are variable and even opposed, they all have some level of function to maintain social existence. In addition, each culture’s scale of value and standards of conduct do not have evolutionary significance. In other words, any scales of value and standards of conduct are not superior to other scales and standards, needless to say falling behind. They are all unique and not simple analogies. They will be meaningful only examined in a certain angle of cultural system. In a word, cultural values are both absolute and relative.

4.2 Cultivating cultural sensitivity

Cultural sensitivity in cross-cultural communication mainly comes from sensitivity of perception. Cross-cultural communication researcher Samovar believed that there are five kinds of socio-cultural factors which have a direct and significant influence on the meaning of perception and these five factors respectively are beliefs, values, attitude systems, world view and social organization. Bruno thought that perception and mental processes included in empathy are quite complicated, which involve concerns about others, interest in others, perception of others by sense, alien consciousness, recognition of identity, etc. Goals of sensitivity training include: (1) allowing one to have better insight into their own behaviors, (2) better understanding specific process of activities, (3) developing judgment and problem-solving skills in the process of group activities. The prerequisites for improving cultural sensitivity are to regard communication object as that with different personality characteristics from communication subject. In cross-culture communication, if we carefully study and perceive communication object’s faith, values, attitude system, world view and social organization, we can scientifically spread and receive information in a targeted manner, reduce artificial barriers in communication and guarantee the quality of two-way communication. Only if we enhance cultural sensitivity and cultivate critical cross-cultural perception ability can we automatically follow and adapt to it and gradually improve the cultural sensitivity and cultural empathy competence.

4.3 Adhering to the moderate principle

The moderate principle is an important principle and notion of cultural empathy in the context of cross-cultural communication, which requires that we grasp the scale in the process of communication because both excessive empathy and absence of empathy will create new obstacles and misunderstandings to cross-cultural communication. However, we can do something to grasp this principle and the following two ways can be effective.

Firstly, in the cross-cultural communication, we must learn to moderately show our glamour and “sell” ourselves, which is the effective means to make communication object know and understand ourselves. This requires that we have certain active consciousness, and we can be boldly “exposed” in front of communication object, and try to get the object’s identity and good feeling. Without proper performance, it is easy to let the other side think that you don’t have the sincerity, or lack confidence. This condition is not conducive to communication success, because without knowing your culture background, it is very easy for the other side to produce misunderstanding, which would destroy the atmosphere of the communication. Secondly, we should try to look for common things between communication subject and object and form a certain consensus. In cross-cultural communication, if we just show our own culture, it is difficult to bring the object into the situation, but if with proper understanding, we can find the topics which the object is interested in so that effective communication can be achieved and so does psychological and emotional resonance.

4.4 Constantly practising

Practice is the best way to cultivate and improve the ability of empathy. We can get to understand the local conditions and customs of countries all over the world by reading foreign literature, learning foreign art as well as paintings and watching foreign movies, videos and drama, etc. In cross-cultural communication, we can set the scene and make ourselves totally immersed in the cultural atmosphere of communication object so that we can acquire knowledge and feel and experience differences on various respects such as thinking modes in cross-cultural communication. Through various channels, we can learn about some countries’ cultural customs, especially those different from Chinese culture. In addition, we can take the way of cooperation to communicate with people, pay more attention to the emotional factors of communication and contribute to a high degree of empathy experience. Through these measures, we can consciously conduct cultural empathy in cross-cultural communication.

5. Conclusion

The cultivation of intercultural communicative competence is a kind of the cultivation of cross-cultural awareness, a kind of objective understanding of values, and a kind of way of thinking. The premise and foundation of acquiring these cognitive ways is the cultivation of cultural empathy. However, achieving the ideal of empathy is not an overnight process, but a long process of psychological adaptation and behavior identity, thus determining that the enormity and constancy of cultural empathy is very important. This requires that the communicator in cross-cultural communication context stand in the object"s position to think, to feel and to experience, and conduct empathy through verbal or nonverbal ways. Cultural empathy not only can make both sides in communication step over the gap of cultural differences and build up the bridge of communication, but also enables them to go beyond the confines of their own cultural framework, to comply with each other, and to contribute to the success of communication. In the process of improving cultural empathy, communicators need to eradicate prejudice and discrimination, to change ethnocentrism into ethnorelativism and to develop intercultural sensitivity so as to improve their own cross-cultural communicative competence and become persons with epoch characteristics.

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